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Chest pain associated with Mitral Valve Prolapse is different from chest pain associated with coronary artery disease and is a frequent complaint. Left atrial enlargement can be mild, moderate or severe depending on the severity of the underlying condition. . In association with left ventricular hypertrophy: Emergency Physician in Prehospital and Retrieval Medicine in Sydney, Australia. Cardiac Magnetic Resonance-Measured Left Atrial Volume and Function and Incident Atrial Fibrillation: Results From MESA (Multi-Ethnic Study of Atherosclerosis). Dear Sports and Exercise Cardiology Enthusiasts: Care of the Athletic Heart 2019 (CAH), directed by Matthew Martinez MD, and Jonathan Kim, MD, convened June 20-22 at the American College of Cardiology's Heart House in Washington, DC. possible left atrial enlargement borderline ecg. Editorial Team Lead, Sports & Exercise Cardiology Clinical Topic Collection. The presence of two or more borderline ECG findings warrants additional investigation to exclude pathological cardiac disease. 1996 Dec;19(12):954-9. doi: 10.1002/clc.4960191211. New York, NY A 29-year-old female asked: Ekg says "borderline ecg" and "probable left atrial enlargement." is this anything of concern? ABC of clinical electrocardiography. Symptoms may vary depending on the degree of prolapse present and may include: Palpitations. Related article: Bays syndrome and interatrial blocks. However, each individual may experience symptoms differently. FOIA government site. eCollection 2014. Learn more: Vaccines, Boosters & Additional Doses | Testing | Patient Care | Visitor Guidelines | Coronavirus. ecg read: An enlarged heart (cardiomegaly) describes a heart that's bigger than what is typical. Echocardiography is the most useful diagnostic test for Mitral Valve Prolapse. ECG criteria for LAE and RAE were assessed by an expert observer blinded to CMR data. #mc-embedded-subscribe-form input[type=checkbox] { EKG Left Atrial Enlargement l The EKG Guy - www.ekg.md Join the largest ECG community in the world at https://www.facebook.com/TheEKGGuy/Like this video and . Dreslinski GR, Frohlich ED, Dunn FG, Messerli FH, Suarez DH, Reisin E. Am J Cardiol. Clin Cardiol. Wide P wave with prominent negative component. abnormal ecg. Bays de Luna A, Platonov P, et al. All patients had normal coronary arteriography, sinus rhythm, normal left ventricular volumes and function, no valvular disease, and no echocardiographic or ECG left ventricular hypertrophy. doi. borderline/ normal ecg Left Atrial Enlargement on the Electrocardiogram - My EKG Echocardiogram This imaging technique uses sound waves to project a. Join our newsletter and get our free ECG Pocket Guide! The overflow capacity of attendees and number of live streaming participants exceeded 220 in total. I hope you're alright and the echo gave you some answers! Left atrial enlargement (LAE) is due to pressure or volume overload of the left atrium. Type 2 Brugada ECG pattern (saddle back) is non-specific. Left atrial enlargement (LAE) is a marker for diastolic cardiac dysfunction. Left Atrial Enlargement LITFL Medical Blog ECG Library Basics In the next few weeks, we will post summaries of key sessions written by cardiology Fellows-in-Training (FIT). poss left atrial enlargement 2009;doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.108.191095. This category only includes cookies that ensures basic functionalities and security features of the website. For more information, please see our In any case, the association between interatrial block and left atrial enlargement is relatively frequent. Specific treatment for mitral valve prolapse will be determined by your doctor based on: Your tolerance for specific medications, procedures, or therapies, Expectations for the course of the disease. "Clinical Implications of Left Atrial Enlargement: A Review", "The Aging Process of the Heart: Obesity Is the Main Risk Factor for Left Atrial Enlargement During Aging: The MONICA/KORA (Monitoring of Trends and Determinations in Cardiovascular Disease/Cooperative Research in the Region of Augsburg) Study", "Atrial enlargement as a consequence of atrial fibrillation A prospective echocardiographic study", "Left atrial volume predicts cardiovascular events in patients originally diagnosed with lone atrial fibrillation: three-decade follow-up", "The Relationship between Obstructive Sleep Apnea and Atrial Fibrillation: A Complex Interplay", "ABC of clinical electrocardiography. Careers. She took an ECG today and it came as borderline abnormal ECG. In most cases, limiting stimulants, such as caffeine and cigarettes, is all that is needed to control symptoms. The negative intrathoracic pressure may cause the left atrium to expand and stretch its walls during each OSA event. There the circle starts. Necessary cookies are absolutely essential for the website to function properly. Other blood pressure drugs. font-weight: normal; Ecg borderline left atrial abnormality Ecg borderline left atrial abnormality Share this page Hi, My sister was having a pain on left side under her arm pit and shoulder since a month. Secondary Mitral Valve Prolapse. It is estimated that mitral valve prolapse occurs in around 3 Left atrial enlargement (LAE) or left atrial dilation refers to enlargement of the left atrium (LA) of the heart, and is a form of cardiomegaly. The reasons for this are explained below. This is shown in Figure 1 (upper panel). No patient met ECG criteria for left atrial abnormality. Left atrial enlargement can cause medical problems such as arrhythmias or abnormal heart rhythms. These cookies track visitors across websites and collect information to provide customized ads. Left atrial enlargement (LAE) or left atrial dilation refers to enlargement of the left atrium (LA) of the heart, and is a form of cardiomegaly . Surawicz B, et al. Alternately the left atrial enlargement might have caused the AF. To confirm left atrial enlargement, the best investigation would be an ECHO. Left atrial size and risk of stroke in patients in sinus rhythm. Unauthorized use of these marks is strictly prohibited. Am Heart J. If atrial fibrillation or severe left atrial enlargement is present, treatment with an anticoagulant may be recommended. The reasons for this are explained below. Beta blockers, angiotensin-converting enzyme . Privacy Policy. Enlargement of the right atrium is commonly a consequence of increased resistance to empty blood into the right ventricle. In an asymptomatic athlete, RBBB in isolation with QRS duration <140msec and in the absence of significant repolarization abnormalities does not warrant further investigation. Mitral Valve Prolapse may be detected by listening with a stethoscope, revealing a "click" (created by the stretched flaps snapping against each other during contraction) and/or a murmur. The https:// ensures that you are connecting to the Undefined cookies are those that are being analyzed and have not been classified into a category as yet. PMC The first half of the P-wave is therefore a reflection of right atrial activationand the second half is a reflection of left atrial activation. Note that sinus bradycardia due to ischemia located to the inferior wall of the left ventricle is typically temporary and resolves within 12 weeks (sinus bradycardia due to infarction/ischemia is discussed separately). Depending on the severity of the leak into the left atrium during systole (mitral regurgitation), the left atrium and/or left ventricle may become enlarged, leading to symptoms of heart failure. Also known as: Left Atrial Enlargement (LAE), Left atrial hypertrophy (LAH), left atrial abnormality. When in doubt whether the bradycardia is physiological, it is useful to perform a Holter ECG (ambulatory recording). Other effects are fibrosis (scarring) of the flap surface, thinning or lengthening of the chordae tendineae, and fibrin deposits on the flaps. Sick sinus syndrome(sinus node dysfunction), which is a common cause of bradycardia, is also discussed separately. Please note, we cannot prescribe controlled substances, diet pills, antipsychotics, or other abusable medications. RBBB is considered a borderline criterion. Tests used to diagnose left ventricular hypertrophy may include: Lab tests. Borderline EKG: Your findings of low voltage QRS and borderline left atrial enlargement may not be significant, but it is worthwhile to have a cardiologist evaluate y. These cookies do not store any personal information. Medications. LAE is suggested by an electrocardiogram (ECG) that has a pronounced notch in the P wave. T-wave inversions in leads V1-V4 are present in 12% of black athletes and are usually preceded by J-point elevation and convex ST segment elevation. Figure 1. Accuracy of left atrial enlargement diagnosed by electrocardiography as compared to cardiac magnetic resonance in hypertensive patients. Primary and secondary forms of Mitral Valve Prolapse are described below. Alterations of the mitral valve are the classic causes of left atrial enlargement, both mitral stenosis due to increased pressure, and mitral insufficiency due to volume increase. References: The left atrial index was also higher in the hypertensive group, 2.18 +/- 0.45 versus 1.88 +/- 0.10 cm/m2 (p less than 0.05), and the left atrial-to-aortic root dimension ratio was significantly higher in the hypertensive group, 1.36 +/- 0.20 versus 1.17 +/- 0.07 (p less than 0.01). Clinical electrocardiography and ECG interpretation, Cardiac electrophysiology: action potential, automaticity and vectors, The ECG leads: electrodes, limb leads, chest (precordial) leads, 12-Lead ECG (EKG), The Cabrera format of the 12-lead ECG & lead aVR instead of aVR, ECG interpretation: Characteristics of the normal ECG (P-wave, QRS complex, ST segment, T-wave), How to interpret the ECG / EKG: A systematic approach, Mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias: from automaticity to re-entry (reentry), Aberrant ventricular conduction (aberrancy, aberration), Premature ventricular contractions (premature ventricular complex, premature ventricular beats), Premature atrial contraction(premature atrial beat / complex): ECG & clinical implications, Sinus rhythm: physiology, ECG criteria & clinical implications, Sinus arrhythmia (respiratory sinus arrhythmia), Sinus bradycardia: definitions, ECG, causes and management, Chronotropic incompetence (inability to increase heart rate), Sinoatrial arrest & sinoatrial pause (sinus pause / arrest), Sinoatrial block (SA block): ECG criteria, causes and clinical features, Sinus node dysfunction (SND) and sick sinus syndrome (SSS), Sinus tachycardia & Inappropriate sinus tachycardia, Atrial fibrillation: ECG, classification, causes, risk factors & management, Atrial flutter: classification, causes, ECG diagnosis & management, Ectopic atrial rhythm (EAT), atrial tachycardia (AT) & multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT), Atrioventricular nodal reentry tachycardia (AVNRT): ECG features & management, Pre-excitation, Atrioventricular Reentrant (Reentry) Tachycardia (AVRT), Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome, Junctional rhythm (escape rhythm) and junctional tachycardia, Ventricular rhythm and accelerated ventricular rhythm (idioventricular rhythm), Ventricular tachycardia (VT): ECG criteria, causes, classification, treatment, Long QT (QTc) interval, long QT syndrome (LQTS) & torsades de pointes, Ventricular fibrillation, pulseless electrical activity and sudden cardiac arrest, Pacemaker mediated tachycardia (PMT): ECG and management, Diagnosis and management of narrow and wide complex tachycardia, Introduction to Coronary Artery Disease (Ischemic Heart Disease) & Use of ECG, Classification of Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS) & Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI), Clinical application of ECG in chest pain & acute myocardial infarction, Diagnostic Criteria for Acute Myocardial Infarction: Cardiac troponins, ECG & Symptoms, Myocardial Ischemia & infarction: Reactions, ECG Changes & Symptoms, The left ventricle in myocardial ischemia and infarction, Factors that modify the natural course in acute myocardial infarction (AMI), ECG in myocardial ischemia: ischemic changes in the ST segment & T-wave, ST segment depression in myocardial ischemia and differential diagnoses, ST segment elevation in acute myocardial ischemia and differential diagnoses, ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) without ST elevations on 12-lead ECG, T-waves in ischemia: hyperacute, inverted (negative), Wellen's sign & de Winter's sign, ECG signs of myocardial infarction: pathological Q-waves & pathological R-waves, Other ECG changes in ischemia and infarction, Supraventricular and intraventricular conduction defects in myocardial ischemia and infarction, ECG localization of myocardial infarction / ischemia and coronary artery occlusion (culprit), The ECG in assessment of myocardial reperfusion, Approach to patients with chest pain: differential diagnoses, management & ECG, Stable Coronary Artery Disease (Angina Pectoris): Diagnosis, Evaluation, Management, NSTEMI (Non ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction) & Unstable Angina: Diagnosis, Criteria, ECG, Management, STEMI (ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction): diagnosis, criteria, ECG & management, First-degree AV block (AV block I, AV block 1), Second-degree AV block: Mobitz type 1 (Wenckebach) & Mobitz type 2 block, Third-degree AV block (3rd degree AV block, AV block 3, AV block III), Management and treatment of AV block (atrioventricular blocks), Intraventricular conduction delay: bundle branch blocks & fascicular blocks, Right bundle branch block (RBBB): ECG, criteria, definitions, causes & treatment, Left bundle branch block (LBBB): ECG criteria, causes, management, Left bundle branch block (LBBB) in acute myocardial infarction: the Sgarbossa criteria, Fascicular block (hemiblock): left anterior & left posterior fascicular block on ECG, Nonspecific intraventricular conduction delay (defect), Atrial and ventricular enlargement: hypertrophy and dilatation on ECG, ECG in left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH): criteria and implications, Right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH): ECG criteria & clinical characteristics, Biventricular hypertrophy ECG and clinical characteristics, Left atrial enlargement (P mitrale) & right atrial enlargement (P pulmonale) on ECG, Digoxin - ECG changes, arrhythmias, conduction defects & treatment, ECG changes caused by antiarrhythmic drugs, beta blockers & calcium channel blockers, ECG changes due to electrolyte imbalance (disorder), ECG J wave syndromes: hypothermia, early repolarization, hypercalcemia & Brugada syndrome, Brugada syndrome: ECG, clinical features and management, Early repolarization pattern on ECG (early repolarization syndrome), Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (broken heart syndrome, stress induced cardiomyopathy), Pericarditis, myocarditis & perimyocarditis: ECG, criteria & treatment, Eletrical alternans: the ECG in pericardial effusion & cardiac tamponade, Exercise stress test (treadmill test, exercise ECG): Introduction, Indications, Contraindications, and Preparations for Exercise Stress Testing (exercise ECG), Exercise stress test (exercise ECG): protocols, evaluation & termination, Exercise stress testing in special patient populations, Exercise physiology: from normal response to myocardial ischemia & chest pain, Evaluation of exercise stress test: ECG, symptoms, blood pressure, heart rate, performance, Normal (physiological) causes of sinus bradycardia, Abnormal (pathological) causes of sinus bradycardia, Treatment of sinus bradycardia: general aspects of management, Algorithm for acute management of bradycardia, Permanent (long-term) treatment of bradycardia, sinus bradycardia due to infarction/ischemia, conduction defects caused byischemia and infarction. Right atrial enlargement produces a peaked P wave ( P pulmonale) with amplitude: > 2.5 mm in the inferior leads (II, III and AVF) > 1.5 mm in V1 and V2. Ther. Habibi M, Samiei S, Ambale Venkatesh B, Opdahl A, Helle-Valle TM, Zareian M, Almeida AL, Choi EY, Wu C, Alonso A, Heckbert SR, Bluemke DA, Lima JA. The echo sound waves create an image on the monitor as an ultrasound transducer is passed over the heart. Always consult your doctor for a diagnosis. Interpretation of neonatal and pediatric electrocardiograms (ECG) You had an ecg. When the bradycardia causes hemodynamic symptoms it should be treated. hospital never told me. What could "possible left atrial enlargement" on an ECG mean? borderline/ normal ecg Simple guide to reading and reporting an EKG step by step. Atrial volume index was computed using the biplane area-length method. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. margin-right: 10px; Cookie Notice The palpitations are usually associated with premature ventricular contractions (the ventricles beat sooner than they should), but supraventricular rhythms (abnormal rhythms that begin above the ventricles) have also been detected. 2014; 64: 1205-1211. doi: 5. The presence of electrocardiographic signs of left atrial enlargement is one of the criteria for the diagnosis of left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH), this is one of the few signs of LVH detectable on the EKG in patients with right bundle branch block (read left ventricular hypertrophy). Left Atrial Enlargement (LAE): Symptoms, Causes & Treatment Causes of Left Atrial Enlargement | Healthfully Benign (physiological) causes of bradycardia (e.g vasovagal reaction, well-trained athletes) need not be treated. The latter study also showed that the persistent type of AF was associated with LAE, but the number of years that a subject had AF was not. Left atrial abnormality on the electrocardiogram (ECG) has been considered an early sign of hypertensive heart disease. The second hump in lead II becomes larger and the negative deflection in V1 becomes deeper. Unconfirmed means a cardiologist hasn't reviewed the EKG yet. Left Atrial Enlargement (LAE) ECG Review | Learn the Heart - Healio Would you like email updates of new search results? Dr. Jerome Zacks answered. A test that is performed while a patient walks on a treadmill to monitor the heart during exercise. The normal P-wave (Figure 1, upper panel) is typically smooth, symmetric and positive. Chou's Electrocardiography in Clinical Practice: Adult and Pediatric, Sixth Edition, Saunders, Philadelphia, 2008. T-wave inversions beyond V2 after age 16 warrants further assessment in Caucasian athletes. Please feel free to contact Chris Driver (cdriver@acc.org) or me (chungeug@umich.edu) with any questions. Results of the PAMELA Study. The amplitude of the normal P-wave does not exceed 2.5 mm in anylimb lead. Sinus bradycardia: definitions, ECG, causes and management Mitral valve prolapse may not cause any symptoms. 1. Research suggests that left atrium size as measured by an echo-cardiograph may be linked to cardiovascular disease. Left Atrial Enlargement: 2. ECG criteria follows: Sinus bradycardia (SB) is considered a normal finding in the following circumstances: In all other situations, sinus bradycardia should be regarded as a pathological finding. 2022 Nov 2;9:1006380. doi: 10.3389/fcvm.2022.1006380. Video chat with a U.S. board-certified doctor 24/7 in less than one minute for common issues such as: colds and coughs, stomach symptoms, bladder infections, rashes, and more. Atrial enlargement/abnormality often accompanies ventricular enlargement. Philadelphia: Elservier; 2008. Advertisement cookies are used to provide visitors with relevant ads and marketing campaigns. This is a noninvasive test that produces comprehensive images of the heart. Left Anterior Fascicular Block: Who Cares? - Healio Rightward axis boderline ecg please explain? - HealthTap is this anything of concern? Normal automaticity and pacemaker cells in the heart, Sinus tachycardia & Inappropriate Sinus Tachycardia. background: #fff; P-waves with constant morphology preceding every QRS complex. These ECG changes, including T-wave inversions, can often return to normal with detraining (see below ECGs); outside the context of age <16 years and black ethnicity, T wave inversions beyond V2 should be investigated. Left atrial enlargement (P mitrale) & right atrial - ECG & ECHO . Calculate the heart axis by entering the QRS amplitude inI andIII. Although other factors may contribute, left atrium size has been found to be a predictor of mortality due to both cardiovascular issues as well as all-cause mortality. Characterizing the size of the left atrium according to its volume is preferred over a single linear dimension since enlargement can be different for different directions. doi: 10.1161/CIRCIMAGING.115.004299. People with Mitral Valve Prolapse often have no symptoms and detection of a click or murmur may be discovered during a routine examination. is the bulging of one or both of the mitral valve flaps (leaflets) If an atrium becomes enlarged (typically as a compensatory mechanism) its contribution to the P-wave will be enhanced. For the most common type of sinus arrhythmia, the time between heartbeats can be slightly shorter or longer depending on whether you're breathing in or out. Isolated Sokolow-Lyon voltage criterion for LVH is common in male athletes and does not warrant further investigation. Calculates the QTc interval by entering QTinterval andHR, How not to overlook EKG changes in acute myocardial infarction, Detailed description of each of the EKG wave. To learn more, please visit our. A borderline ECG is the term used when there is an element of irregularity in the ECG result. into the left atrium during the contraction of the heart. Bethesda, MD 20894, Web Policies Assessing the causal role of hypertension on left atrial and left ventricular structure and function: A two-sample Mendelian randomization study. I have my EKG test last night and said I have possible left atrial Cardiac MRI. Moreover, the P-wavemay be slightly biphasic (diphasic) in lead V1, implying that the terminal part of the P-wave is negative (Figure 1, upper panel). This can be in the form of . People with rhythm disturbances may need to be treated with beta blockers or other medications to control tachycardias (fast heart rhythms). Dr. Sanjay Sharma, co-senior author of the International Recommendations for ECG Interpretation in Athletes, reviewed his approach to the Athlete's ECG. T wave inversions preceded by ST-segment depressions are suggestive of underlying pathology; ST segment depressions should always be considered abnormal; upright T wave in aVR in the context of T wave inversion in V5/V6 is suggestive of pathology involving the left ventricular apex. Interatrial blocks. Took a b-complex vitamin supplement last week that landed me in er. eCollection 2021. could the abnormal been anxiety produced?, and is it something to be worried about? If cardiomyopathy or another type of heart condition is the cause of an enlarged heart, a health care provider may recommend medications, including: Diuretics. Surawicz B, et al. Left ventricular hypertrophy - Diagnosis and treatment - Mayo Clinic The presence of a negative final component of the P wave in lead V1 greater than 40 ms may indicate left atrial enlargement5. Determinants of left atrial appendage volume in stroke patients without chronic atrial fibrillation. The Diagnostic Yield of Routine Electrocardiography in Hypertension and Implications for Care in a Southwestern Nigerian Practice. 2014 Mar;97 Suppl 3:S132-8. This usually means you have an issue with your heart or lungs that's causing all of this. Clinical electrocardiography and ECG interpretation, Cardiac electrophysiology: action potential, automaticity and vectors, The ECG leads: electrodes, limb leads, chest (precordial) leads, 12-Lead ECG (EKG), The Cabrera format of the 12-lead ECG & lead aVR instead of aVR, ECG interpretation: Characteristics of the normal ECG (P-wave, QRS complex, ST segment, T-wave), How to interpret the ECG / EKG: A systematic approach, Mechanisms of cardiac arrhythmias: from automaticity to re-entry (reentry), Aberrant ventricular conduction (aberrancy, aberration), Premature ventricular contractions (premature ventricular complex, premature ventricular beats), Premature atrial contraction(premature atrial beat / complex): ECG & clinical implications, Sinus rhythm: physiology, ECG criteria & clinical implications, Sinus arrhythmia (respiratory sinus arrhythmia), Sinus bradycardia: definitions, ECG, causes and management, Chronotropic incompetence (inability to increase heart rate), Sinoatrial arrest & sinoatrial pause (sinus pause / arrest), Sinoatrial block (SA block): ECG criteria, causes and clinical features, Sinus node dysfunction (SND) and sick sinus syndrome (SSS), Sinus tachycardia & Inappropriate sinus tachycardia, Atrial fibrillation: ECG, classification, causes, risk factors & management, Atrial flutter: classification, causes, ECG diagnosis & management, Ectopic atrial rhythm (EAT), atrial tachycardia (AT) & multifocal atrial tachycardia (MAT), Atrioventricular nodal reentry tachycardia (AVNRT): ECG features & management, Pre-excitation, Atrioventricular Reentrant (Reentry) Tachycardia (AVRT), Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome, Junctional rhythm (escape rhythm) and junctional tachycardia, Ventricular rhythm and accelerated ventricular rhythm (idioventricular rhythm), Ventricular tachycardia (VT): ECG criteria, causes, classification, treatment, Long QT (QTc) interval, long QT syndrome (LQTS) & torsades de pointes, Ventricular fibrillation, pulseless electrical activity and sudden cardiac arrest, Pacemaker mediated tachycardia (PMT): ECG and management, Diagnosis and management of narrow and wide complex tachycardia, Introduction to Coronary Artery Disease (Ischemic Heart Disease) & Use of ECG, Classification of Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS) & Acute Myocardial Infarction (AMI), Clinical application of ECG in chest pain & acute myocardial infarction, Diagnostic Criteria for Acute Myocardial Infarction: Cardiac troponins, ECG & Symptoms, Myocardial Ischemia & infarction: Reactions, ECG Changes & Symptoms, The left ventricle in myocardial ischemia and infarction, Factors that modify the natural course in acute myocardial infarction (AMI), ECG in myocardial ischemia: ischemic changes in the ST segment & T-wave, ST segment depression in myocardial ischemia and differential diagnoses, ST segment elevation in acute myocardial ischemia and differential diagnoses, ST elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) without ST elevations on 12-lead ECG, T-waves in ischemia: hyperacute, inverted (negative), Wellen's sign & de Winter's sign, ECG signs of myocardial infarction: pathological Q-waves & pathological R-waves, Other ECG changes in ischemia and infarction, Supraventricular and intraventricular conduction defects in myocardial ischemia and infarction, ECG localization of myocardial infarction / ischemia and coronary artery occlusion (culprit), The ECG in assessment of myocardial reperfusion, Approach to patients with chest pain: differential diagnoses, management & ECG, Stable Coronary Artery Disease (Angina Pectoris): Diagnosis, Evaluation, Management, NSTEMI (Non ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction) & Unstable Angina: Diagnosis, Criteria, ECG, Management, STEMI (ST Elevation Myocardial Infarction): diagnosis, criteria, ECG & management, First-degree AV block (AV block I, AV block 1), Second-degree AV block: Mobitz type 1 (Wenckebach) & Mobitz type 2 block, Third-degree AV block (3rd degree AV block, AV block 3, AV block III), Management and treatment of AV block (atrioventricular blocks), Intraventricular conduction delay: bundle branch blocks & fascicular blocks, Right bundle branch block (RBBB): ECG, criteria, definitions, causes & treatment, Left bundle branch block (LBBB): ECG criteria, causes, management, Left bundle branch block (LBBB) in acute myocardial infarction: the Sgarbossa criteria, Fascicular block (hemiblock): left anterior & left posterior fascicular block on ECG, Nonspecific intraventricular conduction delay (defect), Atrial and ventricular enlargement: hypertrophy and dilatation on ECG, ECG in left ventricular hypertrophy (LVH): criteria and implications, Right ventricular hypertrophy (RVH): ECG criteria & clinical characteristics, Biventricular hypertrophy ECG and clinical characteristics, Left atrial enlargement (P mitrale) & right atrial enlargement (P pulmonale) on ECG, Digoxin - ECG changes, arrhythmias, conduction defects & treatment, ECG changes caused by antiarrhythmic drugs, beta blockers & calcium channel blockers, ECG changes due to electrolyte imbalance (disorder), ECG J wave syndromes: hypothermia, early repolarization, hypercalcemia & Brugada syndrome, Brugada syndrome: ECG, clinical features and management, Early repolarization pattern on ECG (early repolarization syndrome), Takotsubo cardiomyopathy (broken heart syndrome, stress induced cardiomyopathy), Pericarditis, myocarditis & perimyocarditis: ECG, criteria & treatment, Eletrical alternans: the ECG in pericardial effusion & cardiac tamponade, Exercise stress test (treadmill test, exercise ECG): Introduction, Indications, Contraindications, and Preparations for Exercise Stress Testing (exercise ECG), Exercise stress test (exercise ECG): protocols, evaluation & termination, Exercise stress testing in special patient populations, Exercise physiology: from normal response to myocardial ischemia & chest pain, Evaluation of exercise stress test: ECG, symptoms, blood pressure, heart rate, performance, P pulmonale: right atrial enlargement (hypertrophy, dilatation), P mitrale: left atrial enlargement (hypertrophy, dilatation), P mitrale: leftatrial enlargement (hypertrophy, dilatation).

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