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Figure 3 Stopping sight distance considerations for sag vertical curves. Horizontal Sightline Offset (HSO) is the minimum distance required between the roadside and an obstruction, In areas where information about navigation or hazards must be observed by the driver, or where the drivers visual field is cluttered, the stopping sight distance may not be adequate. This method requires two vehicles, the lead vehicle equipped with modern telemetry, and the trailing vehicle equipped with logging laptop computer. = See AASHTO's A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets for the different types of Superelevation Distribution Methods. (t = 9.1 sec). ----- Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves 208.8 CEMENT TREATED PERMEABLE BASE CLEAR RECOVERY ZONE also see BASE Definition----- 62.7 . Nehate and Rys (2006) used the geometric model developed by Ben-Arieh et al. A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and. (12). [ As such, a measurement approach that entails a more remote analysis of sight distance and permits a broader, regional perspective would certainly be a valuable tool for providing an initial estimate of sight distance. English units metric units Drainage Considerations . 2 2 Given that this measurement method requires the observer to be in the travel lane with their back to traffic, measurements along the shoulder are often substituted since they are safer for the personnel conducting the measurement. The lengths of the passing and overtaken vehicles are 5.8 m (19.0 ft). The design engineer will decide when to use the decision sight distance. Source: AASHTO 2011 "Table 32: Stopping Sight Distance on Grades," A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets, 6th Edition (*) These grades are outside the range for LVR design Shaded cell value has been increased from the calculated value shown in AASHTO Table 32 2 Determining the passing sight distance required for a given roadway is best accomplished using a simplified AASHTO model. h = PSD design controls for crest vertical curves. + However, multilane roadways should have continuously adequate stopping sight distance, with greater-than-design sight distances preferred [1] [2] [3]. Measuring and Recording Sight Distance. The MUTCD uses a minimum passing zone length of 120 m to 240 m (400 ft to 800 ft) depending on the 85th percentile speed limit, (i.e. The Speed differential between the passing and overtaken vehicles is 19 km/h (12 mph). S AASHTO Greenbook (2018 and 2011) uses two theoretical models for the sight distance needs of passing drivers based on the assumption that a passing driver will abort the passing maneuver and return to his or her normal lane behind the overtaken vehicle if a potentially conflicting vehicle comes into view before reaching a critical position in the passing maneuver beyond which the passing driver is committed to complete the maneuver. / Source: AASHTO Green Book, 2011, Table 3 & Table 4. equal to or greater than the minimum passing sight distance should be as long as practical [1] [2] [3]. We'll discuss it now. V 127 <>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text/ImageB/ImageC/ImageI] >>/MediaBox[ 0 0 612 792] /Contents 4 0 R/Group<>/Tabs/S>> Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: (1) the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied, and (2) the distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins. 4.1.1 Stopping Sight Distance Stopping Sight Distance (SSD) is the length of roadway required for a vehicle traveling at . 2 Input the slope of the road. A 127 Minimum Recommended Sight Distances Vehicle Speed (mph) Stopping Sight Distance (feet) 15 70 20 90 25 115 30 140 35 165 40 195 45 220 50 245 55 285 Note: Distances are from the 2001 AASHTO Green Book and 2001 AASHTO Little Green Book. This method requires one employee in a vehicle equipped with a measuring device, and a paint sprayer. S < L: Lm = A(PSD2) 864 S > L: Lm = 2PSD 864 A Where: endobj = SECTION II STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE FOR CREST VERTICAL CURVES 6 . On downgrades, passenger car speeds generally are slightly higher than on level terrains. The Glennon (1998) model assumes that the critical position occurs where the passing sight distance to complete the maneuver is equal to the sight distance needed to abort the maneuver [14]. passing sight distance formula aashto intersection sight triangles highway sight distance stopping sight distance formula (6). (16). This work and the related PDF file are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. Forces acting on a vehicle that is braking. v Moreover, the minimum sight distance at any point on the roadway should be long enough to enable a vehicle traveling at or near the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. S 2 This will decrease the . Although greater length is desirable, sight distance at every point along the highway should be at least that required for a below-average driver or vehicle to stop in this distance. The assistant stops when the bottom 0.6 m portion of the target rod is no longer visible. Figure 9 shows the parameters used in determining the length of crest vertical curve based on PSD. As the vehicles traverse a roadway, observers in the trailing vehicle note whether or not portions of the road meet the specified sight distance. :! h6Cl&gy3RFcA@RT5A (L terrains. Sight distance is one of the important areas in highway geometric design. = ( HWn]7}WGhvuG7vR&OP$1C6qbD./M:ir?':99pGosIt>OY/yso9? R v = average speed of passing vehicle (km/h). 0000004597 00000 n 800 1.5 Let's assume that you're driving on a highway at a speed of 120 km/h. (2). ), level roadway, and 40 mph posted speed. qZ^%,4n 2T$L]pXa`fTz fR%1C$BBYOBl,Ca=!nXaGaZnko6`2:Z^Feu?BI+X-a! = Table 1. V (AASHTO 2011) As shown in table 13 and table 14, lane widths of 11 or 12 ft (3.4 or 3.7 m) are recommended, depending on . 2 We will also explain how to calculate the stopping distance according to AASHTO (the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials). Another technique that has widely been used is the computer based method, using the global positioning systems (GPS) data [7]. f A The basic equations for length of a crest vertical curve in terms of algebraic difference in grade and sight distance criteria are as follows [1] [2] : L + Design controls for sag vertical curves differ from those for crests, and separate design values are needed. ( While there may be occasions, where multiple passing occurs when two or more vehicles pass a single vehicle, or a single vehicle passes two or more vehicles. 2 Similar in scope to the conventional approach, modern technologies have also been utilized to measure sight distance in the field. Therefore, an object height of 0.6 m is considered the smallest object that could pose risk to drivers. The minimum time clearance between the passing and opposed vehicles at the point at which the passing vehicle returns to its normal lane is 1.0 sec. S Providing the extra sight distance will probably increase the cost of a project, but it will also increase safety. Use the AASHTO Green Book or applicable state or local standards for other criteria. 0000007994 00000 n /Width 188 S S Thus, stopping sight distance values exceed road-surface visibility distances afforded by the low-beam headlights regardless of whether the roadway profile is level or curving vertically. (2010) propose an algorithm to compute roadway geometric data, including roadway length, sight distance, and lane width from images, using emerging vision technology based on 2D, and 3D image reconstruction [8]. The choice of an object height equal to the driver eye height makes design of passing sight distance reciprocal (i.e. Therefore, sight distance criteria must be presented in a clear and comprehensive manner to facilitate the completion of satisfactory roadway design. ",Apbi#A7*&Q/h?4T\:L3Qs9A,-@LqLQKy*|p712Z$N;OKaRJL@UTuGB =HG54T`W5zV1}gZubo(V00n This distance is known as stopping sight distance) It can be formally defined as the minimum sight distance for the driver to stop without colliding at any point of the highway. 4.3. A R S = sight distance in ft, PVC = point of the vertical curve (the initial point of the . If a passing maneuver is aborted, the passing vehicle will use a deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 (11.2 ft/s2), the same deceleration rate used in stopping sight distance criteria. a 864 2 Where practical, vertical curves at least 300 ft. in length are used. Normally, passing sight distance is provided only at locations where combinations of alignment and profile do not need significant grading [1] [2]. Clearly, it's different than the typical formula used in the speed calculator. When a vehicle travels at constant speed on a curve super elevated so that the friction is zero, the centripetal acceleration is sustained by a component of the vehicles weight, and no steering force is needed. t 200 Exhibit 1 Stopping Sight Distance (2011 AASHTO Table 3-1, 3-4) Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance "Another element of horizontal alignment is the sight distance across the inside of curves (often referred to as Horizontal Sightline Offset. e: rate of roadway super elevation, percent; f: coefficient of side friction, unitless; R: radius of the curve measured to the vehicles center of gravity, m. Values for maximum super elevation rate (e) and maximum side friction coefficient (f) can be determined from the AASHTO Green Book for curve design. The stopping sight distances from Table 7.3 are used. <]>> A: Algebraic difference in grades, percent. 800 h \9! endstream endobj 242 0 obj<> endobj 244 0 obj<> endobj 245 0 obj<>/Font<>/ProcSet[/PDF/Text]/ExtGState<>>> endobj 246 0 obj<> endobj 247 0 obj<> endobj 248 0 obj<> endobj 249 0 obj<> endobj 250 0 obj[/ICCBased 264 0 R] endobj 251 0 obj<> endobj 252 0 obj<> endobj 253 0 obj<> endobj 254 0 obj<> endobj 255 0 obj<> endobj 256 0 obj<>stream Adequate sight distance provides motorists the opportunity to avoid obstacles on the roadway, to merge smoothly with other traffic, and to traverse intersections safely. A Table 1 shows the SSD on level. The stopping distances needed on upgrades are shorter than on level roadways; those on downgrades are longer. Minimum stopping sight distances, as shown in Table 1, shall be provided in both the horizontal and vertical planes for planned roadways as related to assumed driver's eye height and position. Generally, it is impractical to design crest vertical curves that provide passing sight distance because of high cost and the difficulty of fitting the resulting long vertical curves to the terrain. 0000002686 00000 n The available sight distance on a roadway should be sufficiently long enough to enable a vehicle traveling at or near the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. yHreTI Even if you're not a driver, you'll surely find the stopping distance calculator interesting. trailer 120. However, poor visibility can reduce the drivers ability to react to changing conditions and is a significant factor in roadway crashes and near collisions. Figure 7. However, it is not practical to assume such conditions in developing minimum passing sight distance criteria. H 864 <> / PSD parameters on crest vertical curves. 2 S AASHTO Policy on Geometric Design, 1990 Edition (English Units) and 1994 Edition(Metric units), and the Oregon Highway Design Manual. (3). Horizontal and vertical alignments include development and application of: circular curves; superelevation; grades; vertical curves; procedures for the grading of a road alignment; and determination of sight distances across vertical curves. 2 A Is the road wet or dry? >> The passing vehicle has sufficient acceleration capability to reach the specified speed differential relative to the overtaken vehicle by the time it reaches the critical position, which generally occurs about 40 percent of the way through the passing maneuver. 2 Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: the distance traversed by the vehicle from the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied and the distance required to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins. Azimi and Hawkins (2013) proposed a method that uses vector product to derive the visibility of the centerline of the roadway from the spatial coordinates of a set of GPS data of the centerline and defined the clear zone boundaries on both sides of the roadway to determine the available sight distance at each point of the roadway [12] [13]. S AASHTO accident rates accidents additional appear Appendix approximately assumed average braking distances changes coefficient . + The stopping sight distance (SSD) is the total distance you travel during the time you (a) react to apply brakes, (b) apply brakes and actually begin to decelerate, and (c) vehicle comes to a stop. Highway Stopping Sight Distance, Decision Sight Distance, and Passing Sight Distance Based on AASHTO Models. 800 endobj Figure 6 provides an illustration of the recommended AASHTO criteria on DSD. The recommended design speed is Actual Design Speed minus 20 mph. Let's say that you had a good night's sleep (with the help of the sleep calculator) before hitting the road but have been driving for some time now and are not as alert as you could be. In order to ensure that the stopping sight distance provided is adequate, we need a more in-depth understanding of the frictional force. To stick with those greater sight distances, Equation (6) for SSD on curves is directly applicable to passing sight distance but is of limited practical value except on long curves, because it would be difficult to maintain passing sight distance on other than very flat curves. The equation applies only to circular curves longer than the sight distance for the specified design speed [1] [2] : Figure 2. University of Missouri-Columbia, Missouri, USA, Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. 0000010702 00000 n SIGHT DISTANCE 28-1 STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE (SSD) Stopping sight distance (SSD) is the sum of the distance traveled during a driver's brake reaction time (i.e., perception/reaction time) and the braking distance (i.e., distance traveled while decelerating to a stop). Like with the stopping sight distance, two formulas are available to answer the minimum length question, depending on whether the passing sight distance is greater than or less than the curve length. xSKSQv]:7Q^@6\/ax>3K/d? }/!}9Mw{~n x+`=` 4Ub#N FuA%6F,s13RFUkR{d {A~{y2g?OYCX d\GF2KMCG-4]_>?f2. = 2.2. S = A headlight height of 0.60 m (2.0 ft) and a 1-degree upward divergence of the light beam from the longitudinal axis of the vehicle are assumed in the design. G Exhibit 7-7 Minimum Stopping Sight Distance (SSD). The method of measuring stopping sight distance along a roadway is illustrated in Figure 1. when the driver of the passing vehicle can see the opposing vehicle, the driver of the opposing vehicle can also see the passing vehicle). [ Operation of passenger cars on a 3.0 percent upgrade has only a slight effect on their speeds compared to operations on level terrain. SSD is made up of two components: (1) Braking Distance and (2) Perception-Reaction Time. = Stopping Sight Distance (2004 AASHTO Exhibit 3-1, 112) Horizontal Stopping Sight Distance . The use of separate PSD criteria for design and marking is justified based on different needs in design and traffic operation. 4.5. = When a vehicle traverses a sag vertical curve at night, the portion of highway lighted ahead is dependent on the position of the headlights and the direction of the light beam. SD = available stopping sight distance (ft (m)). An object height of a 0.6 m (2.0 ft) is commonly selected based on studies that have indicated that objects less than 0.60 m in height are less likely to cause crashes. They utilized a piecewise parametric equation in the form of cubic B-splines to represent the highway surface and sight obstructions, and the available sight distance was found analytically by examining the intersection between the sight line and the elements representing the highway surface and sight obstructions. 8SjGui`iM]KT(LuM_Oq/;LU`GDWZJX-.-@ OYGkFkkO~67"P&x~nq0o]n:N,/*7`dW$#ho|c eAgaY%DA Ur<>s LDMk$hzyR8:vO|cp-RsoJTeUrK{\1vy M .v9`a%_'`A3v,B -ie"Z!%sV.9+; `?X C&g{r}w8M'g9,3!^Ce~V X`QY9i`o*mt9/bG)jr}%d|20%(w(j]UIm J2M%t@+g+m3w,jPiSc45dd4U?IzaOWrP32Hlhz5+enUth@]XJh The standards and criteria for stopping sight distance have evolved since the >> of a crest vertical curve to provide stopping sight distance. (5). b Intersection Sight Distance: Approach 2 And 3 ft Source: American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials. 2 0.01 Speed kmph <0: 40: 50: 60 >80: f: 0.4: 0.38: 0.37: 0.36: 0.5: If the road possesses an ascending gradient in an amount equal to +n%, to the braking action the component factor of gravity will be added. AASHTO Green book (2018 and 2011) uses both the height of the drivers eye and the object height as 1.08 m (3.5 ft) above the road surface [1] [2]. = tables are based on the AASHTO's "A Policy on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets," 2011. Passing zones are not marked directly. This acceleration is sustained by a component of the vehicles weight related to the roadway super elevation, by the side friction developed between the vehicles tires and the pavement surface, or by a combination of the two, which is occasionally equals to the centrifugal force [1] [2] [3] [4]. ) The capacity of a two-lane, two-way road is increased if a large percentage of the roadways length can be used for passing maneuvers [14] [15] [16]. S All points of access shall adhere to the safety criteria for acceptable intersection and stopping sight distance in accordance with current Administration standards and engineering practices. Table 3 shows the AASHTO recommended decision sight distances for various maneuvers. sight distance. The overtaken vehicle travels at uniform speed. 800 (The standard values shown in the Park Road Standards are based on the 1984 Green Book and so are outdated). Table 4 shows the minimum values of PSD required for the design of two-lane highways based on AASHTO 2018 and 2011 Green Books. FH$aKcb\8I >o&B`R- UE8Pa3hHj(3Y# F#"4,*Edy*jC'xLL -bfH$ XTA% F!]6A Input all parameters into the AASHTO equation: s = (0.278 1.5 120) + 120 / (254 (0.27 + 0)). 1 This period is called the perception time. 2.3. 1 0000003772 00000 n /BitsPerComponent 1 +jiT^ugp ^*S~p?@AAunn{Cj5j0 0000020542 00000 n Therefore, passing sight distance (PSD) is considered an important factor in both the design of two-lane, two-way (TLTW) highways and the marking of passing zones (PZ) and no-passing zones (NPZ) on two-lane, two-way highways. 60. Passenger cars can use grades as steep as 4.0 to 5.0 percent without significant loss in speed below that normally maintained on level roadways. The driver eye height of 1.08 m that is commonly recommended is based on research that suggests average vehicle heights have decreased to 1.30 m (4.25 ft) with a comparable decrease in average eye heights to 1.08 m (3.50 ft). V 0000000796 00000 n For example, long traffic queues, problems of driver expectancy, and high traffic volumes require more time and distances to accommodate normal vehicle maneuvers of lane changing, speed changes and path changes. 30. 1 0 obj According to the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), the ability of a driver to see ahead on the roadway is very important for the efficient operation of a vehicle. AASHTO Formula is along the lines: s = (0.278 x t x v) + v/(254 x (f + G)) Where, Since the current US highway system operates with relatively low level of crashes related to passing maneuvers and PSD, which indicates that the highway system can be operated safely with passing and no-passing zones marked with the current MUTCD criteria, therefore changing the current MUTCD PSD criteria to equal the AASHTO criteria, or some intermediate value, is not recommended because it would decrease the frequency and length of passing zones on two-lane, two-way highways. = 1.5 (1), AASHTO Greenbook (2018 and 2011) recommends a (2.5 seconds) as the drivers reaction time, and (3.4 m/s2) as the deceleration rate for stopping sight distance calculations. The visibility of a target on the lead vehicle, monitored from the trailing vehicle, is recorded to determine if the available sight distance is sufficient. 2 ] 2.Overtaking sight distance (OSD): The following assumptions are made regarding the driver behavior in the passing maneuvers and PSD calculations based on the Glennon (1998) and Hassan et al. Figure 3 shows the AASHTO parameters used in determining the length. Fundamental Considerations 3. After you start braking, the car will move slower and slower towards the child until it comes to a stop. It is commonly used in road design for establishing the minimum stopping sight distance required on a given road. 1.1 Stopping sight distance (SSD) SSD is the distance that the driver must be able to see ahead along the roadway while traveling at or near the design speed and to safely stop before reaching an object whether stationary or not. [ It depends on 1- The total reaction time of the driver 2- Speed of vehicle 3- Efficiency of brakes 4- Gradient of road 5- Friction For large trucks, the driver eye height ranges from 1.80 m to 2.40 m (3.50 ft to 7.90 ft). s@@RM~^7Tp7pS#C$#U J ,nqB#/$$o;^W*1v& 3 Substituting these values, the above equations become [1] [2] : L AASHTO SSD criteria on Horizontal alignments. Stopping sight distance is defined as the distance needed for drivers to see an object on the roadway ahead and bring their vehicles to safe stop before colliding with the object. A vehicle traveling faster or slower than the balance speed develops tire friction as steering effort is applied to prevent movement to the outside or to the inside of the curve. SSSD = Minimum safe stopping sight distance (feet). The distance traveled from the moment you first hit the brake until you come to a complete stop is called the braking distance. 2 stream Table 1. 0000001991 00000 n 2 (t between 10.2 and 11.2 sec). Introduction 2. Table 1: Desirable K Values for Stopping Sight Distance. , F_o$~7I7T 2. (18). This design method for sag curves provides a minimum curve length. A While stopping sight distances are usually sufficient to allow average drivers to come to a complete stop under ordinary circumstances, however, greater distances are preferred where drivers must make instantaneous decisions, where information is difficult to perceive, or when unexpected or unusual maneuvers are needed. i Ground speed calculator helps you find the wind correction angle, heading, and ground speed of an aircraft. 0000001651 00000 n Crest vertical curves should be designed to provide at least the stopping sight distance that is a major design control. tan Greater visibility can provide motorists more time to avoid crashes and conflicts, facilitating safe and efficient operation. ,?=ec]]y@ I7,uZU668RyM(@!/3Q nyfGyz2g.'\U| Figure 4 shows the parameters used in the design of a sag vertical curve. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) has defined acceptable limits for stopping, decision, and passing sight distances based on analysis of safety requirements. Marking of Passing Zones on Two-Lane Highways. Stopping Sight Distance. Stopping sight distances are used when vehicles are traveling at design speeds on wet pavements when . Sight distance shall be measured and evaluated for each proposed point of state highway access in accordance with the State's adopted version of AASHTO . 190. scE)tt% 7Y/BiSqz@.8@RwM# 0M!v6CzDGe'O10w4Dbnl/L}I$YN[s/^X$*D$%jlS_3-;CG WzyR! e 127 YtW xd^^N(!MDq[.6kt Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed/Path/Direction Change on Urban Road ? Circle skirt calculator makes sewing circle skirts a breeze. Note: For approach grades greater than 3%, multiply the sight distance values in this table by the appropriate adjustment factor . ] 'o8Rp8_FbI'/@2 #;0 Ae 67C) B!k0+3q"|?p@;@,`DHpHA@0eD@B2tp4ADh@.%J(Al2p@7 4K6 Imagine that you are driving your car on a regular street. R S Stopping Sight Distance Stopping Sight Distance Example Accident Reconstruction: Average Skid Mark = 47 feet Crush damage indicates 20 to 30 mph speed at impact f = 0.65 (how do they know this? V 3%TQ?5tI)6zcYsA!EHKaE?Bslk!*[8L_xl)[PT\slOHwSt+.QQ; SW]ID=(}+M.Zn[(D^gR-UJRqX?A`S'g_kukQ261{C.;X0 GKSkN6XVJ#U>yKA*2)MA The stopping sight distances shown in Table 4-1 should be increased when sustained downgrades are steeper than 3 percent. + d2: The length of roadway that is traversed by the passing vehicle while it occupies the left lane. This object height is based on a vehicle height of 1.33 m (4.35 ft), which h represents the 15th percentile of vehicle heights in the current passenger car population, less an allowance of 0.25 m (0.85 ft), which is a near-maximum value for the portion of the vehicle height that needs to be seen for another driver to recognize a vehicle. On a dry road the stopping distances are the following: On a wet road the stopping distances are the following: The answer is a bit less than 50 m. To get this result: Moreover, we assume an average perception-reaction time of 2.5 seconds. From any point location along the road, the observer should sight from the top of the sighting rod while the assistant moves away in the direction of travel. ( As a result, the (1 ? t The first conventional procedure is called the walking method [5] [6] that involves at least two individuals, sighting and a target rods, a measuring wheel, and a chain. S y5)2RO%jXSnAsB=J[!, c[&G#{l75Dd]xPHg:(uTj;|[p3Rwd-+,5dQ_ 0000003808 00000 n S In order to secure a safe passing maneuver, the passing driver should be able to see a sufficient distance ahead, clear of traffic, to complete the passing maneuver without cutting off the passed vehicle before meeting an opposing vehicle [1] [2] [3]. In addition, there are avoidance maneuvers that are safer than stopping, but require more reaction time by the driver. The term "NC" (normal crown) represents an equal downward cross-slope, typically 2%, on each side of the axis of rotation. Sight distance is the length of highway a driver needs to be able to see clearly. f A startxref Table-1: Coefficient of longitudinal friction. Mathematical Example By This Formula. Each passing zone along a length of roadway with sight distance ahead should be. The minimum radius of curvature is based on a threshold of driver comfort that is suitable to provide a margin of safety against skidding and vehicle rollover. 2 To calculate SSD, the following formula is used: a V SSD Vt 1.075 2 1.47 = + (Equation 42-1.1) . c. The Recommended values are required. AASHTO Stopping Sight Distance on grades. 3) d3 = Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing vehicle (the clearance length), ranges from (30.0 to 90.0) m. 4) d4 = Distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing vehicle occupies the left lane, or 2/3 of d2 above, and ranges from (97.0 to 209.0) m. Figure 7 shows the AASHTO 2004 model for calculating PSD.

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